Toraja Tribe is the tribe that settled in the mountainous northern part of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Its population is estimated about 650,000 people, with 450,000 of whom still live in Tana Toraja Regency. [1] The majority of the Toraja embraced Christianity, while some embraced Islam and animist beliefs known as Aluk To Dolo. The Indonesian government has recognized this belief as part of Hindu Dharma. [2]
The word comes from the Bugis Toraja, to Riaja, which means "one who dwells in the land above." The Dutch colonial government named this tribe Toraja in 1909. [3] Interest is famous Toraja funeral rites, customs house tongkonan and carving wood. Toraja funeral rituals are important social events, usually attended by hundreds of people and lasted for several days.
Before the 20th century, the Toraja live in autonomous villages. They still embrace animism and untouched by the outside world. In the early 1900s, Dutch missionaries came and spread Christianity. After more open to the outside world in the 1970s, Tana Toraja district became a symbol of Indonesia's tourism. Tana Toraja exploited by tourism developers and studied by anthropologists. [4] Toraja society since the 1990's transformed the culture, from traditional berkepercayaan and agrarian society, a society which are predominantly Christian and rely on the growing tourism sector. [5]
Table of contents
[Hide]
* 1 Ethnic identity
* 2 History
* 3 Community
o 3.1 Family
o 3.2 Social class
o 3.3 Religion
* 4 Culture
o 4.1 Tongkonan
o 4.2 wood Carving
o 4.3 funeral
o 4.4 Music and Dance
* 5 Languages
* 6 Economy
* 7 Commercialization
* 8 Footnotes
* 9 References
* 10 Further reading
* 11 External links
[Edit] Ethnic identity
Toraja Tribe clearly have little idea about themselves as an ethnic group before the 20th century. Prior to Dutch colonialism and the pengkristenan, the Toraja, who live in the highlands, was identified based on their village, and not assume the same group. Although the rituals create a relationship between the villages, there are a lot of diversity in dialects, social hierarchy, and various ritual practices in the highlands of Sulawesi. "Toraja" (from the coast to, which means people, and Riaja, plateau) was first used as a designation for the resident population of lowland plateau. [3] Consequently, in the beginning "Toraja" more trade relationships with people outside -such as the Bugis and Makassar tribe, who inhabit most of the lowlands in South-rather than with fellow tribe in the highlands. The presence of Dutch missionaries in the highlands of Toraja ethnic raise awareness Sa'dan Toraja Toraja in the region, and shared identity is growing with the rise of tourism in Tana Toraja. [4] Since then, South Sulawesi has four main ethnic groups-ethnic Bugis (the majority, include shipbuilders and sailors), spare Makassar (merchants and sailors), Mandar tribe (traders and fishermen), and the Toraja (farmers in the highlands). [6]
[Edit] History
Location of Toraja (green) between Makassar (yellow) and Bugis (red).
Gulf of Tonkin, is located between northern Vietnam and southern China, believed to be the place of origin of the Toraja. [7] There has been a long acculturation between the Malay race in Sulawesi with Chinese immigrants. Initially, the immigrants are living in coastal areas of Sulawesi, but eventually moved to the highlands.
Since the 17th century, the Dutch began to put the power of trade and politics in Sulawesi through Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (VOC). For two centuries, they ignore the central highlands of Sulawesi (Toraja tribe place of residence) because it is difficult to achieve and has little productive land. At the end of the 19th century, the Dutch began to worry about the rapid spread of Islam in South Sulawesi, especially among the Makassar and Bugis tribes. Holland saw the Toraja who embrace animism as a potential target for Christianized. In the 1920s, the mission of spreading Christianity began to run with the help of the Dutch colonial government. [2] In addition to spreading the religion, the Netherlands also abolished slavery and local taxes apply. A line drawn around the region and called Tana Toraja Sa'dan. Tana Toraja was originally a subdivision of the kingdom Luwu who claim the region. [8] In 1946, the Dutch gave Tana Toraja regentschap status, and Indonesia to admit it as a district in 1957. [2]
Dutch missionaries who had just come get strong resistance from the Toraja as a profitable trade route elimination Toraja. [9] Some of the Toraja have been moved to the lowlands by force by the Dutch to be more easily managed. Tax set at a high level, with the aim to undermine the wealth of the elites of society. Nevertheless, these efforts do not damage the Dutch Toraja culture, and few Toraja people who was a Christian. [10] In 1950, only 10% of the Toraja people who changed religion to Christianity. [9]
Muslim population in the lowlands to attack the Toraja in the 1930's. As a result, many Toraja people who want to ally with the Dutch moved to the Christian religion to gain political protection, and in order to form a resistance movement against the people Bugis and Makassar as Muslim. Between 1951 and 1965 after the independence of Indonesia, South Sulawesi experienced turmoil due to insurgency waged by Darul Islam, which aims to establish an Islamic state in Sulawesi. Guerrilla war that lasted 15 years is also causing more and more people move to the Christian Toraja. [11]
In 1965, a presidential decree requires that the entire population of Indonesia to adopt one of the five recognized religions: Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism and Buddhism. [12] The original Trust Toraja (aluk) are not legally recognized, and the Toraja attempt decree against it. To make aluk accordance with the law, it must be accepted as part of one of the official religion. In 1969, Aluk To Dolo legalized as part of Hindu Dharma. [2]
[Edit] Society
[Edit] Family
A tribal village Toraja
Families are the main political and social groups in the Toraja. Each village is a large family. Each tongkonan have names that serve as the name of the village. Families participate maintain village unity. Marriage with a distant cousin (fourth cousin, and so on) is a common practice that strengthens the relationship kekerabatan.Suku Toraja prohibit marriage with close cousins (up to third cousins) except for the nobility, to prevent the spread of wealth. [13] The relationship lasted a reciprocal kinship, in the sense that large families help each other in agriculture, share in a ritual buffalo, and each pay the debt.
Each person becomes a member of the family's mother and father. [14] Children, therefore, inherited many things from her mother and father, including land and even the family debt. The child's name is given on the basis of kinship, and are usually chosen based on the name of relatives who have died. Name aunts, uncles and cousins who are usually called in the name of mother, father and siblings.
Prior to the official government Tana Toraja regency government, each village to do his own government. In certain situations, when one family Toraja can not handle their own problems, some desabiasanya form groups, at times, and keeping the village will be united against other villages relationship between family expressed by blood, marriage, and shared ancestral home (tongkonan) practically characterized by the exchange of buffaloes and pigs in the ritual. The exchange was not only political and cultural relationships between families but also to place each person in the social hierarchy: who poured the wine, who wrapped the bodies and prepare the offerings, where each person may or may not sit, what dishes should be used or avoided, and even a piece of meat that is allowed for each person. [15]
[Edit] Social class
In early Toraja society, family relationships borne close to the social class. There are three levels of social classes: nobility, ordinary people, and slaves (slavery was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch). Social class derived from the mother. Not allowed to marry women from lower classes but are allowed to marry women from the more high-class, aims to improve the status of the next descent. Condescending attitude of the duke of ordinary people is still maintained until now for reasons of family dignity. [5]
Nobility, which is believed to be descended from heaven, [16] living in tongkonan, while the common people lived in more modest houses (bamboo hut, called banua). Slaves lived in small huts built near tongkonan property of their masters. The common people may marry anyone but the nobility usually perform marriages in the family to maintain the purity of their status. Commoners and slaves banned celebration of death. Although based on kinship and descent status, there are also some social movement that can affect one's status, such as marriage or a change in the amount of wealth. [13] Wealth is calculated based on the number of buffaloes owned.
Slaves in Toraja society is family-owned property. Sometimes the Toraja people become slaves because of debt and pay it by way of a slave. Slaves could be taken during the war, and the slave trade was common. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slaves are not allowed to wear bronze or gold, eating from the same plate with their masters, or sexual intercourse with a woman's independence. Penalties for violations of the death penalty.
[Edit] Religion
Traditional belief system of the Toraja are polytheistic animist beliefs called aluk, or "road" (sometimes translated as "law"). In the myth of the Toraja, the Toraja ancestor came from heaven in a ladder which is then used by the Toraja as a way of relating to Puang Matua, the creator god. [17] The universe, according to aluk, divided into the world above (Heaven), the human world (earth) , and the underworld. [9] In the beginning, heaven and earth to marry and produce darkness, separation, and then comes the light. Animals living in the underworld that is represented by a rectangular-shaped site bounded by four pillars, the earth is a place for humanity, and heaven is located on top, covered with a roof berbetuk saddle. Toraja other gods is Pong Banggai in Rante (god of earth), Indo 'Ongon-Ongon (goddess of earthquakes), Pong Lalondong (god of death), Indo' Belo Fall (goddess of medicine), and others. [18]
Power on earth that the words and actions must be held either in agriculture or in the life of the funeral ceremony, referred to minaa (a pastor aluk). Aluk not just a belief system, but also a combination of law, religion, and habits. Aluk regulate social life, agricultural practices, and religious rituals. Aluk ordinances may vary from one village to another village. The common law is the rule that the rituals of death and life should be separated. Toraja Tribe believes that the rituals of death will destroy the body if its implementation combined with the rituals of life. [19] Both rituals are equally important. When there are missionaries from the Netherlands, the Christian Toraja are not allowed to attend or perform ritual life, but allowed to perform the ritual of death. [10] As a result, the ritual of death is still often performed today, but the ritual has begun life rarely implemented.
[Edit] Culture
[Edit] Tongkonan
Three tongkonan Toraja village.
Tongkonan is the traditional Toraja house that stood on the pile of wood and decorated with carvings of red, black, and yellow. The word "tongkonan" is derived from the Toraja language tongkon ("sit").
Tongkonan is central to the social life of the Toraja. Rituals associated with tongkonan very important in the spiritual life of the Toraja therefore all family members are required to participate because Tongkonan melambangan their relationship with their ancestors. [15] According to folklore Toraja, tongkonan first constructed in heaven with four poles. When the Toraja ancestor came down to earth, he mimics the house and held a big ceremony. [20]
Tongkonan development work is tiring and is usually done with the help of a large family. There are three types of tongkonan. Tongkonan layuk is a place of supreme power, which is used as central "government". Tongkonan pekamberan belongs to a family member who has a certain authority in local customs and traditions while family members usually live in tongkonan stone. The exclusion of the nobility of tongkonan decreases the number of ordinary people seeking gainful employment in other areas in Indonesia. After gaining enough money, ordinary people were able to build large tongkonan.
[Edit] Wood Carving
Toraja wood carving: each panel symbolizes goodwill.
Toraja language is spoken only and have no writing system. [21] To demonstrate the concept of religious and social, ethnic Toraja make wood carvings and called Pa'ssura (or "writing"). Therefore, wood carving is a manifestation of Toraja culture.
Each carving has a special name. Motive usually is of animals and plants that symbolize virtue, for example, water plants such as aquatic weeds and animals such as crabs and tadpoles which symbolizes fertility. Picture left shows examples of wood carvings of the Toraja, consisting of 15 square panels. Lower middle panel represents a buffalo or wealth, as hopes for a family get a lot of buffalo. Middle panel represents the knot and a box, a hope for all the descendants of the family will be happy and live in peace, like the goods stored in a box. The box top left and right of the animal symbolizes the water, indicating the need to move quickly and work hard, like an animal that moves on the water surface. Does This also indicates a need for specific expertise to produce good results.
Regularity and order is a common trait in Toraja wood carving (see design table below), but it also Toraja wood carving abstract and geometric. Nature is often used as the basis of ornament Toraja, because nature is full of abstraction and regular geometry. [21] Ornaments Toraja studied in ethnomatematika with the aim to reveal the structure of mathematics, although the Toraja make these carvings based solely on their own estimates. [21] Tribe Toraja use bamboo to make oranamen geometric.
Some of the motifs carved Toraja
pa'tedong
(Buffalo)
pa'barre allo
(Sun)
pa're'po 'sanguba
(Dancing)
ne'limbongan
(Legendary designer)
source: [22]
[Edit] funeral
Toraja burial site was carved.
In Toraja society, funerals are the most important rituals and expensive. The more wealthy and powerful person, then the cost of funeral services will be more expensive. In aluk religion, only the noble families who are entitled to hold a large funeral party. Feast of the funeral of a nobleman is usually attended by thousands of people and lasted for several days. A place called rante funeral procession is usually prepared in a broad meadow, other than as a place of mourners in attendance, as well as a rice barn, and various other burial devices made by the family of the deceased. Flute music, singing, song and poetry, weeping and wailing is an expression of grief by the Toraja but all was not applicable to funerals of children, the poor, and low class people. [23]
A funeral is sometimes just held after weeks, months, even years since the death in question, with the aim that the family can collect enough money to cover funeral expenses. [24] Ethnic Toraja believe that death is not something that comes with a sudden but is a gradual process towards Puya (world spirit, or afterlife). In times of waiting, the corpse was wrapped with several pieces of cloth and kept under tongkonan. Spirits of the dead believed to remain in the village until the funeral ceremony is completed, after which the soul will travel to Puya. [25]
A tomb.
Another part of the cemetery is the buffalo sacrifice. The more powerful person, the more buffalo are slaughtered. Slaughter is done by using a machete. Buffalo carcass, including head, lined up in the desert, waiting for his owner, who was in the "time asleep". Toraja Tribe believes that the spirits need a buffalo to make the trip and will more quickly reach Puya if there is a lot of buffalo. Buffalo slaughter of tens and hundreds of pigs is the culmination of a funeral which lacks the music and dance that captures the young blood that spurt with a long bamboo. Some meat is given to the guests and noted because it will be considered as debt on the family of the deceased. [26]
There are three ways a funeral: The coffin can be stored in the cave, or in a tomb carved stone, or hanging on the cliff. Rich people are sometimes buried in a tomb carved stone. The tomb is usually expensive and time it was created around a few months. In some areas, stone caves used to store the bodies of all family members. Wood sculpture called tau tau is usually placed in a cave and facing out. [27] The coffin infant or child with a rope hanging on the cliff side. Ropes are usually lasted for a year before the rot and make the casket fell.
[Edit] Music and Dance
Toraja Tribe doing dance on several occasions, mostly in a ceremonial burial. They dance to show my grief, and to honor the spirits of the deceased as well as encourage the soul will undergo a long journey to the afterlife. First of all, a group of men formed a circle and sing songs throughout the night to honor the deceased (terseebut ritual called Ma'badong). [6] [26] The ritual is regarded as the most important component in the funeral ceremony. [23] On the second day of the burial, dances Ma'randing soldiers praised the courage displayed for the deceased during his lifetime. Several men perform dances with a sword, big prisai from buffalo leather, buffalo horn helmet, and various other ornaments. Ma'randing dance procession begins when the corpse was taken from the granary to rante, where the funeral ceremony. During the ceremony, the adult women do Ma'katia dance while singing and wearing a furry costume dress. Dance Ma'akatia aims to remind the audience of the generosity and loyalty deceased. After the slaughter of buffalo and pigs, a group of boys and girls clapped his hands while doing the dance called Ma'dondan cheerful.
Manganda Dance 'is displayed on the ritual Ma'Bua'.
As in other agrarian societies, the Toraja singing and dancing during the harvest season. Ma'bugi dance performed to celebrate Thanksgiving Day and the dance Ma'gandangi displayed when the Toraja are pounding rice [28] There are some dances of war, for example Manimbong dances performed by men and then followed by a dance Ma'dandan by women. Religion Aluk regulate when and how the Toraja dancing. A dance called Ma'bua 12 years can only be done once. Ma'bua Toraja ceremony which is important when wearing religious head of buffalo and dancing around the sacred tree.
Toraja traditional musical instrument is a bamboo flute called Pa'suling. Flute six holes are played at many dances, such as the dance Ma'bondensan, when the instrument is played with a group of men dancing with no shirts and long finger nails. Toraja Tribe also has other musical instruments, for example Pa'pelle made from palm leaves and played at the time of harvest and when the opening ceremony of the house. [29]
[Edit] Language
Toraja language is the dominant language in Tana Toraja, the Toraja Sa'dan as the main dialect. Indonesian language as the national language is the official language and is used by the community, [1] but the Toraja language was taught in all primary schools in Tana Toraja.
Diversity of languages in Toraja, among others Kalumpang, Mamasa, Tae ', Talondo', Toala ', and Toraja-Sa'dan, and included in the Malay-Polynesian language family of Austronesian languages. [30] At first, the geographical nature of the isolated Tana Toraja forming many dialects in the Toraja language itself. After the official government in Tana Toraja, some dialects Toraja be influenced by other languages through the process of transmigration, which was introduced since colonial times. It is the major cause of diversity in the language of the Toraja. [6]
The diversity of languages ISO 639-3 Toraja Denominations Population (in years) Dialect
Edit icon Kalumpang 12.000 (1991) Karataun, Mablei, Mangki (E'da), Bone Hau (Ta'da).
Mamasa mqj 100,000 (1991) North Mamasa, Mamasa middle, Pattae '(South Mamasa, Patta' Binuang, Binuang, Tae ', Binuang-Paki-Batetanga-Anteapi)
Rob Ta'e 250,000 (1992) Rongkong, Luwu Northeast, South Luwu, Bua.
Talondo 'TLN 500 (1986)
Toala 'tlz 30.000 (1983) Toala', Palili '.
Sda-Sa'dan Torajan 500,000 (1990) Makale (Tallulembangna), Rantepao (trouble '), Toraja West (West Toraja, Mappa-Pana).
Source: Gordon (2005). [30]
Prominent features in the Toraja language is the notion of grief of death. The importance of funeral ceremony in Toraja have created their own language to express feelings of grief and mourning processes in several levels of the complex. [23] Bahasa Toraja has many terms to show sadness, longing, depression, and mental distress. It is a catharsis for the Toraja people if they are clearly showing the effect of losing one's events; it is sometimes also intended to reduce the suffering of grief itself.
[Edit] Economy
Before the New Order, Toraja economy dependent on agriculture with the terracing on the slopes of the mountain and its supporting food is cassava and maize. Much time and effort spent on the Toraja to raise buffaloes, pigs, and chickens that are needed primarily for the sacrifice and for food. [11] The only industry is agriculture in the Toraja coffee mill Japan, Toraja Coffee.
With the start of the New Order in 1965, Indonesia's economy began to grow and open themselves to foreign investment. Many multinational oil companies and mining companies opened new businesses in Indonesia. Toraja society, especially the younger generation, many who migrate to work in foreign companies. They went to Borneo to the wood and oil, to Papua to mine, and to cities in Sulawesi and Java. This displacement occurs until the year 1985. [2]
Toraja economy gradually started turning to tourism in 1984. Between 1984 and 1997, the Toraja people earn income by working at the hotel, a tour guide, or sell souvenirs. The emergence of political and economic instability in Indonesia in the late 1990s (including a variety of religious conflict in Sulawesi) has led to dramatically reduced Toraja tourism.
[Edit] Commercialization
Tomb of the Toraja in the high rocky cliffs is one of the major tourist attractions in Tana Toraja.
Before the 1970s, Toraja is almost unknown by western tourists. In 1971, about 50 Europeans visited Tana Toraja. In 1972, tourists at least 400 people attended the funeral of Sangalla Puang, the highest royalty and nobility in Tana Toraja Toraja last pure-blooded. The event was documented by National Geographic and broadcast in several European countries. [2] In 1976, about 12,000 tourists visited in 1981 and Toraja, Toraja sculpture exhibited in many museums in North America. [31] "Land of the heavenly kings in Toraja ", as it is written in the brochure of the exhibition, has attracted the outside world ..
In 1984, the Ministry of Tourism of Indonesia declares Regency South Sulawesi Toraja as a prima donna. Tana Toraja is promoted as "the second stop after Bali". [5] Tourism is greatly increased: by the year 1985, there were 150,000 foreign tourists visited Tana Toraja (in addition to 80,000 domestic tourists), [4] and the number of annual foreign visitors, there were 40,000 people in 1989. [2] Souvenirs sold at Rantepao, Toraja cultural center, many hotels and tourist restaurants are open, but it created a new airfield in 1981. [15]
The developers made the Toraja tourism as an exotic adventure area, has a wealth of culture and remote. Western tourists are encouraged to visit the stone age village and ancient burial. Toraja is a place for tourists who have visited Bali and want to see the other islands are wild and "untouched". [2] But the Toraja feel that tongkonan and various other Toraja rituals have been used as a means of taking profit, and complain that it's too commercialized. This resulted in several clashes between communities and developers Toraja tourism, which are considered as outsiders by the Toraja. [4]
Clashes between local leaders and government Toraja in South Sulawesi (as a developer tour) occurred in 1985. The government made the 18 villages in Toraja and the traditional burial place as a "tourist attraction". As a result, some restrictions apply to these areas, such as a person prohibited from changing tongkonan Toraja and their burial place. This was opposed by some community leaders Toraja, because they felt that the rituals and traditions they have been determined by outsiders. As a result, in 1987 the village of Kete trouble and several other villages designated as "tourist attraction" to close their doors from the tourists. However, this closure only lasted a few days because the villagers found it difficult to survive without income from the sale of souvenirs. [4]
Tourism can alter the Toraja community. In the past there is a ritual that allows ordinary people to marry a nobleman (Puang), and thus their children will get a title of nobility. However, the image of the Toraja community that was created for the tourists has eroded the traditional hierarchy is strict, [5] so that the status of honor is no longer viewed as before. Many ordinary men can only express themselves and their children as noble, in a manner sufficient to obtain wealth and then marry a woman of nobility.
[Edit] Footnotes
1. ^ Abcd "Tana Toraja official website" (in Indonesian). http://www.toraja.go.id/sosial.php. Retrieved on October 4, 2006.
2. ^ ABCDEFGH Volkman, Toby Alice (February 1990). "Visions and revisions: Toraja Culture and the Tourist Gaze". American Ethnologist 17 (1): 91-110. doi: 10.1525/ae.1990.17.1.02a00060. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0094-0496% 28199002% 2917% 3A1% 3C91% 3AVARTCA% 3E2.0.CO% 3B2-G. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
3. ^ A b Nooy-Palm, Hetty (1975). "Introduction to the Sa'dan People and Their Country." Archipel 15: 163-192.
4. ^ A b c d e Adams, Kathleen M. (January 31, 1990). "Cultural Commoditization in Tana Toraja, Indonesia." Cultural Survival Quarterly 14 (1). http://209.200.101.189/publications/csq/csq-article.cfm?id=841. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
5. ^ A b c d Adams, Kathleen M. (Spring 1995). "Making-Up the Toraja? The Appropriate of Tourism, Anthropology, and Museums for Politics in Upland Sulawesi, Indonesia." Ethnology 34 (2): 143. doi: 10.2307/3774103. ISSN 0014-1828. http://www.jstor.org/pss/3774103. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
6. ^ A b c Sutton, R. Anderson (1995). "Performing arts and cultural politics in South Sulawesi" (PDF). Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde 151 (4): 672-699. http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/files/pdf/art_BKI_1565.pdf.
7. ^ Kruyt, A.C. (1938) (in Dutch). De West-Toradjas op Midden-Celebes. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers-Maatschappij.
8. ^ Schrauwers, Albert (1997). "Houses, hierarchy, headhunting and exchange; Rethinking the political relations in the Southeast Asian realm of Luwu '" (PDF). Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde 153 (3): 356-380. http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/files/pdf/art_BKI_1613.pdf. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
9. ^ A b c cf. Kis-Jovak et al. (1988), Ch. 2, Hetty Nooy-Palm, The World of Toraja, p.. 12-18.
10. ^ A b Ngelow, Zakaria J. (Summer 2004). "Traditional Culture, Christianity and Globalization in Indonesia: The Case of Torajan Christians" (PDF). Inter-religious 45. http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/miscPublications/IR/pdf/45-Ngelow.pdf. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
11. ^ A b Volkman, Toby Alice (December 31, 1983). "A View from the Mountains" ([link disabled] - Scholar search). Cultural Survival Quarterly 7 (4). http://www.cs.org/publications/csq/csq-article.cfm?id=150. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
12. ^ Yang, Heriyanto (August 2005). "The history and legal position of Confucianism in postindependence Indonesia" (PDF). Marburg Journal of Religion 10 (1). http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2005/yang2005.pdf. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
13. ^ A b Waterson, Roxana (1986). "The ideology and terminology of kinship Among the Sa'dan Toraja" (PDF). Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde 142 (1): 87-112. http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/files/pdf/art_BKI_1261.pdf. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
14. ^ Waterson, Roxana (1995). "Houses, Graves and the limits of kinship groupings Sa'dan Among the Toraja" (PDF). Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde 151 (2): 194-217. http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/files/pdf/art_BKI_1545.pdf. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
15. ^ A b c Volkman, Toby Alice (February 1984). "Great Performances: Toraja Cultural Identity in the 1970s". American Ethnologist 11 (1): 152. doi: 10.1525/ae.1984.11.1.02a00090. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0094-0496% 28198402% 2911% 3A1% 3C152% 3AGPTCII% 3E2.0.CO% 3B2-% 23. Retrieved on May 21, 2007.
16. ^ Wellenkamp, Jane C. (1988). "Order and Disorder in Toraja Thought and Ritual." Ethnology 27 (3): 311-326. doi: 10.2307/3773523.
17. ^ Toraja.go.id, accessed on May 18, 2007.
18. ^ Toraja Religion. Overview of World Religion. St. Martin College, United Kingdom. Retrieved on September 6, 2009.
19. ^ Cf. Wellenkamp (1988).
20. ^ "Toraja Architecture". Ladybamboo Foundation. http://www.toraja.net/culture/arcitecture/index.html. Retrieved on 4 September 2009.
21. ^ A b c Palmer, Miquel Alberti (2006). "The Approximately method of the Torajan woodcarvers of Sulawesi to divide a segment into equal parts" (doc). Third International Conference on Ethnomathematics: Cultural Connections and Mathematical Manipulations, Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland. Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
22. ^ Sande, J.S. (1989). "Toraja Wood-Carving Motifs". Ujung Pandang. http://www.batusura.de/ukiran.htm. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
23. ^ A b c Jane C. Wellenkamp (August 1988). "Notions of Grief and Catharsis Among the Toraja". American Ethnologist 15 (3): 486-500. doi: 10.1525/ae.1988.15.3.02a00050. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0094-0496% 28198808% 2915% 3A3% 3C486% 3ANOGACA% 3E2.0.CO% 3B2-T.
24. ^ In 1992, a prominent Toraja, Tana Toraja incumbent, died, and his family asked for as much as U.S. $ 125,000 from a Japanese television station as a license to record the funeral ceremony. Cf. Yamashita (1994).
25. ^ Hollan, Douglas (December 1995). "To the Afterworld and Back: Mourning and Dreams of the Dead Among the Toraja". Ethos 23 (4): 424-436. doi: 10.1525/eth.1995.23.4.02a00030. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0091-2131% 28199512% 2923% 3A4% 3C424% 3ATTAABM% 3E2.0.CO% 3B2-E. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
26. ^ A b Yamashita, Shinji (October 1994). "Manipulating Ethnic Tradition: The Funeral Ceremony, Tourism, and Television Among the Toraja of Sulawesi" ([link disabled] - Scholar search). Indonesia 58: 69-82. doi: 10.2307/3351103. http://e-publishing.library.cornell.edu:80/Dienst/UI/1.0/Summarize/seap.indo/1106970445. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
27. Tau tau ^ sring stolen and sold as antiques, for example, is tau tau 'on display at the exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum in 1981 and in Herstand Arnold Gallery in New York in 1984. Cf. Volkman Volkman (1990).
28. ^ "Toraja Dances". www.batusura.de. http://www.batusura.de/dances.htm. Retrieved on May 2, 2007.
29. ^ "Toraja Music". www.batusura.de. http://www.batusura.de/music.htm. Retrieved on May 2, 2007.
30. ^ A b Gordon, Raymond G. (2005) (online version). Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp. Retrieved on October 17, 2006.
31. ^ Volkman, Toby (July 31, 1982). "Tana Toraja: A Decade of Tourism". Cultural Survival Quarterly 6 (3). http://209.200.101.189/publications/csq/csq-article.cfm?id=69. Retrieved on May 18, 2007.
[Edit] References
* Adams, Kathleen M. (2006). Art as Politics: Re-crafting Identities, Tourism and Power in Tana Toraja, Indonesia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3072-4.
* Bigalke, Terance (2005). Tana Toraja: A Social History of an Indonesian People. Singapore: KITLV Press. ISBN 9971-69-318-6.
* Acts-Jovak, J.I.; Nooy-Palm, H.; Schefold, R. and Schulz-Dornburg, U. (1988). Banua Toraja: changing patterns in architecture and symbolism Sa'dan Among the Toraja, Sulawesi, Indonesia. Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute. ISBN 90-6832-207-9.
* Nooy-Palm, Hetty (1988). The Sa'dan-Toraja: A Study of Their Social Life and Religion. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 90-247-2274-8.
[Edit] References
* Kathleen M. Adams (2006). Art as Politics: Re-crafting Identities, Tourism and Power in Tana Toraja, Indonesia .. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3072-4.
* Parinding, Samban C. and Achjadi, Judi (1988). Toraja: Indonesia's Mountain Eden. Singapore: Times Edition. ISBN 981-204-016-1.
* Douglas W. Hollan and Jane C. Wellenkamp (1996). The Thread of Life: Toraja Reflections on the Life Cycle. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-82481-839-3.
* Buijs, Kees, Powers of blessing from the wilderness and from heaven. Structure and transformations in the religion of the Toraja in the Mamasa area of South Sulawesi, Leiden 2006, KITLV
[Edit] External links
Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to Toraja Tribe
* (En) Official website of the government district of Tana Toraja
* (En) Toraja Culture Information
* (De) Galeria photos Tana Toraja
* (En) Site contains information on the Tana Toraja
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